Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Father of Microbiology

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Father of Microbiology Anton van Leeuwenhoek (October 24, 1632–August 30, 1723) invented the first practical microscopes and used them to become the first person to see and describe bacteria, among other microscopic discoveries.  Indeed, van Leeuwenhoeks work effectively refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation, the theory that living organisms could spontaneously emerge from nonliving matter. His studies also led to the development of the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology. Fast Facts: Anton van Leeuwenhoek Known For:  Improvements to the microscope, discovery of bacteria, discovery of sperm, descriptions of all manner of microscopic cell structures (plant and animal), yeasts, molds, and moreAlso Known As: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, Antony Van LeeuwenhoekBorn:  Oct. 24, 1632 in Delft, HollandDied:  Aug. 30, 1723 in in Delft, HollandEducation:  Only basic educationPublished Works:  Arcana naturÅ“ detecta, 1695, a collection of his letters sent to the Royal Society of London, translated into Latin for the scientific communityAwards:  Member of the Royal Society of LondonSpouse(s): Barbara de Mey (m.1654–1666),  Cornelia Swalmius (m. 1671–1694)Children: MariaNotable Quote:  My work...was not pursued in order to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge. Early Life   Leeuwenhoek was born in Holland on October 24, 1632, and as a teenager he became an apprentice at a linen drapers shop. Although it doesnt seem a likely start to a life of science, from here Leeuwenhoek was set on a path to inventing his microscope. At the shop,  magnifying glasses were used to count the threads and inspect the quality of cloth. He was inspired and taught himself new methods for grinding and polishing tiny lenses of great curvature, which gave magnifications up to 275x (275 times the subjects original size), the finest known at that time. Contemporaneous Microscopes People had been using magnifying lenses since the 12th century and convex and concave lenses for vision correction since the 1200s and 1300s. In 1590, Dutch lens grinders Hans and Zacharias Janssen constructed a microscope with two lenses in a tube; though it may not have been the first microscope, it was a very early model. Also credited with the invention of the microscope about the same time was Hans Lippershey, the inventor of the telescope. Their work led to others research and development on telescopes and the modern compound microscope, such as Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer whose invention was the first given the name microscope. The compound microscopes of Leeuwenhoeks time had issues with blurry figures and distortions and could magnify only up to 30 or 40 times. Leeuwenhoek Microscope Leeuwenhoeks work on his tiny lenses led to the building of his microscopes, considered the first practical ones. They bore little resemblance to todays microscopes, however; they were more like very high-powered magnifying glasses and used only one lens instead of two. Other scientists didnt adopt Leeuwenhoeks versions of microscopes because of the difficulty in learning to use them.  They were small (about 2 inches long) and were used by holding ones eye close to the tiny lens and looking at a sample suspended on a pin. Leeuwenhoek Discoveries With these microscopes, though, he made the microbiological discoveries for which he is famous. Leeuwenhoek was the first to see and describe bacteria (1674), yeast plants, the teeming life in a drop of water (such as algae), and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries. The word bacteria didnt exist yet, so he called these microscopic living organisms animalcules. During his long life, he used his lenses to make pioneer studies on an extraordinary variety of things- living and nonliving- and reported his findings in more than 100 letters to the Royal Society of England and the French Academy. Leeuwenhoeks first report to the Royal Society in 1673 described bee mouthparts, a louse, and a fungus. He studied the structure of plant cells and crystals, and the structure of human cells such as blood, muscle, skin, teeth, and hair. He even scraped the plaque from between his teeth to observe the bacteria there, which, Leeuwenhoek discovered, died after drinking coffee. He was the first to describe sperm and postulated that conception occurred when a sperm joined with an ovum, though his thought was that the ovum just served to feed the sperm. At the time, there were various theories of how babies formed, so Leeuwenhoeks studies of sperm and ovum of various species caused an uproar in the scientific community. It would be around 200 years before scientists would agree on the process. Leeuwenhoeks View on His Work Like his contemporary  Robert Hooke, Leeuwenhoek made some of the most important discoveries of early microscopy. In one letter from 1716, he wrote, My work, which Ive done for a long time, was not pursued in order to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than in most other men. And therewithal, whenever I found out anything remarkable, I have thought it my duty to put down my discovery on paper, so that all ingenious people might be informed thereof. He did not editorialize on meanings of his observations and acknowledged he was not a scientist but merely an observer. Leeuwenhoek was not an artist either, but he worked with one on the drawings he submitted in his letters. Death Van Leeuwenhoek also contributed to science in one other way. In the final year of his life, he described the disease that took his life. Van Leeuwenhoek suffered from uncontrollable contractions of the diaphram, a condition now known as Van Leeuwenhoek disease. He died of the disease, also called diaphragmatic flutter, on August 30, 1723, in Delft. He is buried at the Oude Kerk (Old Church) in Delft. Legacy Some of Leeuwenhoeks discoveries could be verified at the time by other scientists, but some discoveries could not because his lenses were so superior to others microscopes and equipment. Some people had to come to him to see his work in person. Just 11 of Leeuwenhoeks 500 microscopes exist today. His instruments were made of gold and silver, and most were sold by his family after he died in 1723. Other scientists did not use his microscopes, as they were difficult to learn to use. Some improvements to the device occurred in the 1730s, but big improvements that led to todays compound microscopes didnt happen until the middle of the 19th century. Sources â€Å"Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek.†Ã‚  Famous Biologists Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Comments, famousbiologists.org.Cobb, M. An Amazing 10 Years: The Discovery of Egg and Sperm in the 17th Century. Reproduction in Domestic Animals 47 (Suppl. 4; 2012), 2–6, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.Lane, Nick. The Unseen World: Reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) ‘Concerning Little Animals.’  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 370 (1666) (April 19, 2015): 20140344.Samardhi, Himabindu Radford, Dorothy M. Fong, Kwun. (2010). Leeuwenhoeks disease: Diaphragmatic flutter in a cardiac patient. Cardiology in the Young. Cardiology in the Young. 20. 334 - 336.Van Leeuwenhoek, Anton. Letter of June 12, 1716, to the Royal Society, quoted by the University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley.Vision Engineering. Later Developments.

Legal Rights of Buyers and Sellers Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Legal Rights of Buyers and Sellers - Case Study Example In Office of Fair Trading's (OFT) website any person can see the consumer rights forum and can use for his rightful purpose. This paper presents about the rights that are applicable to a consumer and a seller. If both parties are in dispute regarding the product they can approach OFT or court. After making an enquiry court will rule in favour of the party that follows the rules and regulations. Lets look at the present case. Bigbeef Ltd is in the business of butchery trade as a wholesale supplier of fresh meat. While supplying the products they give customers a detailed description of the standard terms and conditions of trading which has to be strictly followed. It includes a clause. According to this clause until buyer pays the amount in full the ownership of the goods supplied will remain with the seller, which in this case is Bigbeef Ltd. If the buyer hasn't paid in full or paid some amount then the seller has every right to take action by recovering and selling the goods and may enter buyer's premises for that purpose. Afterwards legal action would be taken against the buyer to recover the dues. Before the payment of the dues if the buyer alters the supplied goods in any way then the seller has the whole property rights on those altered and processed goods until such payments has been made and seller' s would be extended to those altered or processed goods. Until the buyer pays the amount in full for the goods relationship between them would be money related in respect of the goods.Bigbeef Ltd supplied 100 sides of fresh British beef to Frosty Ltd that is a frozen meat distributor and a regular customer. Frosty Ltd hasn't paid any amount regarding the supply of the British beef. Of the 100 sides 75 were cut into joints, packaged and frozen ready for resale. Because of the stringent government laws and regulations regarding labelling of beef the original supplier of the goods can be easily traced. Frosty Ltd sold the remaining 25 sides to a local super market that were supplied by Bigbeef Ltd to Frosty Ltd. Frosty Ltd made no profits from this trade to local super market.The above is the scenario in which one party supplies goods to the second party without receiving any payment. The second party sells a part of the supplies to the third party without making any profits. Due to UK's strict laws with respect to labelling of the goods the second party cannot sell the goods supplied by first party without prior permission from them or until full payment is made. The General Consumer council for Northern Ireland (The Consumer Council) is a statutory body, whose aim is to promote the interests of all consumers. The Consumer Council campaigns on behalf of consumers for the best possible standards of service and protection, undertakes research and gives advice and information and issues publications. The Consumer Council also manages consumer line that gives advice and information to consumers on: Practical help on how you can deal with your problem. Sources of additional help. Advice on using Small Claims Court. Your legal rights as a consumer. The Council has an Environmental Health

Shipping Logistics in the UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shipping Logistics in the UK - Essay Example Data for the research will be gathered from both primary and secondary data where all participants will be selected randomly to reduce biasness in the research. Questionnaires will be used to help in data collection where telephone interviews will be used to help reduce cost of travelling. After data has been collected it will be analyzed using computer programs such as Ms. Excel and SPSS and presented using tables and graphs. Confidentiality will be observed as a strategy for enforcing ethics sin research. Background of the Research The term shipping has changed from what it was associated with in the past to include any form of transport moving goods from one point to another (Lun, Lai and Cheng, 2010, p. 12). Previously, the term the term was associated with water borne transport. Consequently this extended meaning makes the industry a complex and dynamic. Logistics is described as the management of the flow of commodities from the point of production to target point with an aim o f meeting the needs of customers and companies. Logistics calls for assimilation of information, inventory, transportation, warehousing, handling and packaging of materials and security of the goods. According to Fremont (2009, p. 1), for the last 50 years, containerization has turned into the prop of globalization. Additionally, this period has seen increased international trade and consequently this calls for efficient shipping logistics. Companies and businesses demand for better synchronized shipping activities in terms of location and space by development of logistics chains. The total value of the UK logistics industry was $105.7 billion in 2010 having grown by 9.9 percent in the 2009-10 fiscal years. This sector employs thousands of people and supports a significant proportion of the country’s economy. However, the sector is facing various constrains which may impede the efficient discharge of its responsibilities to different stakeholders. One primary concern in the s ector is the security threats caused by pirates and increased terrorism cases (Askins, 2012, p. 15). The other issue facing the UK shipping sector is that fact that with enlargement of European Union, competition has increased with the newer member states to the EU who have lower operational costs. Moreover, in the late 1990s, there was increased demand for bigger containers and tanker ships overstretched the capacity of the available ports thereby impeding trade. In light of these developments in this sector, it is critical to carry out a research into the shipping logistics in UK to understand the processes and procedures implemented by different companies to ensure smooth trade between UK and other countries. Aim and Objectives of the Research The aim of this research is to understand shipping logistics in United Kingdom; the process, procedures and policies that control shipping in UK. Moreover, the research will help understand any impediments to the shipping logistics in UK an d the problems faced by shippers in UK in relation to other shippers in the European Union. Objectives of the research 1. To find the security issues facing shippers in UK 2. To assess handling of goods at the port in UK 3. To investigate whether there is adequate capacity for shipping in UK Justification of the research Findings from this research will be help regulatory authorities make better informed decisions on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud Computing in Business

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud Computing in Business INTRODUCTION A proceeding stream of information technology innovations is changing the customary business world. Samples incorporate the rise of distributed computing, the development of a portable computerized business stage dependent upon cell phones and netbook machine and not slightest, the utilization of informal communities by directors to attain business goals. The vast majority of these progressions have happened in the last few years. All the while, some old or customary organizations are, no doubt devastated while new organizations are springing up. Data frameworks are establishment for directing business today. In numerous streamlined, survival and even presence is troublesome without far reaching utilization of data engineering. Organizations use data frameworks to accomplish significant targets like playing point and regular preference. KEY IT TERMS Cloud Computing Definitions â€Å"A computing environment where software and storage are provided as an Internet service and are assessed with a Web Browser.†(Factual Definition) In my own words, cloud computing is defined as a Web-based application that are stored on remote servers and accessed via the cloud of the internet using a standard Web browser. Cloud Computing refers to a modal of computing in which firms and individuals obtain computing resources and software applications over the internet which is also referred to as the cloud. Hundreds of thousands computers are located in cloud data centers where they can be accessed by desktop computers, notebooks, netbooks and other client machines linked to the internet. Companies like EBay, Amazon, Dell and HP work tremendously; versatile distributed computing focuses that give processing force, information stockpiling and rapid Internet associations with firms that need to keep up their IT frameworks remotely. Based on my IT knowledge, organizations using cloud computing generally do not own the infrastructure; they do not have to make huge investments in their own hardware and software. Instead, they purchase their computing services from remote providers and pay only for the amount of computing power they actually use or are billed on a monthly or annual subscription basis. Advantages and Drawbacks The strength of cloud computing imply that association can depend all the more on telework, remote work and conveyed choice making. This same stage methods firms can outsource more work and depend on businesses as opposed to representative to construct esteem. It likewise implies that organizations can team up with suppliers and clients to make new items or make existing items all the more effectively. Besides that, cloud computing platform emerges as a major business area of innovation. A flexible collection of computers on the internet begins to perform tasks traditionally performed on corporate computers. Every advantage has its disadvantages, therefore cloud computing has some drawbacks. Unless users make provisions for storing their data locally, the responsibility of data storage and control is in the hands of the providers. Some companies worry about the security risks related to entrusting their critical data and system to an outside vendor that also works with other companies. Companies expect their systems to be available 24/7 and 365 days and do not want to suffer any loss of business capability if their infrastructure if their IT infrastructure malfunction. For instance, when Amazon’s cloud went down in July 2008, subscribers were unable to use their system for eight hours. Another limitation of cloud computing is the possibility of making users dependent on the cloud computing provider. Latest Cloud Trending Cloud computing has encountered exponential development throughout the last few years. As of December 2013, very nearly 60 percent of current small-to-medium businesses (SMB) utilization cloud administrations, and 72 percent of these organizations virtualize generous bits of their servers. The development is just anticipated that will expand throughout the following few years. Here are simply a couple of the real present patterns in the business today. Hybrid clouds- Hybrid clouds mists offer a framework that consolidates private cloud security with savvy, capable and adaptable open cloud qualities. Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)- Platform-as-a-service solutions empower business to decrease their IT expenses while expanding requisition advancement through more productive testing and improvement routines. Mobile-Cloud Computing- Growth of Mobile Cloud Computing is the latest trend among smartphones users because it’s cost-effective and less time consuming. Mobile commerce Definition â€Å"The use of mobile, wireless devices to place orders and conducts business† (factual definition) In my own words, Mobile Commerce is defined as the use of wireless devices, such as hand phones or handheld digital information appliances, to conduct both business-to-consumer and business-to-business electronic commerce transaction over the internet. Based on my understanding on m-commerce, is the fastest growing type of Business-to-Consumer e-commerce although it represent only a small part of all e-commerce. In 2013, there were an estimated 5 billion hand phones subscribers worldwide with highest users are from China and United States. Portable business provisions have taken off for administrations that one time-basic, that speak to individuals moving or that finish an undertaking more productively than different systems. M-commerce is especially popular in Japan, South Korea and other countries with strong broadband infrastructures. For instance, banking and financial services. Banks and credit cards companies are rolling out services that let customers manage their accounts from their mobile devices. Maybank and Public Bank in Malaysia allows their customers to use their smartphones to check account balances, transfer funds and pay bills that makes the life of consumers easier and better. Uses of M-commerce M-commerce is particularly appropriate for area based requisitions, for example, discovering neighborhood lodgings and restaurants, overseeing nearby activity and climate, and giving customized area based showcasing. Hand phones and handhelds are constantly utilized for portable bill installment, keeping money, securities exchanging, transportation timetable redesigns, and downloads of computerized substance, for example, music, recreations, and feature cuts. M-commerce obliges remote entryways and exceptional computerized installment frameworks that can deal with micropayments. M-commerce used as Entertainment Latest emerging smartphones like Samsung, High Tech Computer (HTC), IPhone and Blackberry are quickly turning portable entertainment platforms. Mobile phones services offer downloadable digital games, music and ringtones. More and more handset models combine the features of a cell phone and a portable music player. Users of broadband services from the major wireless vendors can download on-demand video clips, news clips and weather clips. For instance, Astro-on-the-go, Astro IPTV, and MyHyApp TV offered by Astro; features live TV programs, including Fox Sports and Fox Movies. Besides that, film companies are starting to produce shorts films explicitly designed to play on mobile phones. User-generated content is also appearing in mobile-form. Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, YouTube and other social networking sites have versions for mobile devices. M-Commerce Trending The most compelling motivation for this enormous uptick in portable trade is the sheer number of individuals now furnished with cell phones and tablets. Yet there are some paramount ways retailers are likewise driving and saddling the versatile business blast. Local(Malaysia) – â€Å"Duriana†, a new Malaysian mobile marketplace app, surpasses the 110,000 listing mark on their platform with 80% of those listings coming from their Malaysian platform after only six short weeks in the market (Business Insider). Foreign Country- ‘EBay India launches initiative to promote mobile commerce’. Famous e-commerce website EBay launches mobile commerce in India in order to increase their revenue. Machine cycle Definition â€Å"The instruction phase followed by the execution phase†. In my own words, Machine Cycle usually called fetch-and-execute cycle, fetch-decode-execute cycle, is the fundamental operation cycle of a computer. It is the procedure by which a machine recovers a system direction from its memory, figures out what movements the guideline requires, and completes those activities. This cycle is rehashed persistently by the central processing unit (CPU), from boot up to when the monitor is closed down. Steps of Machine Cycle The steps performed by the computer processor for each one machine dialect direction gained. The machine cycle is a 4 procedure cycle that incorporates reading and interpreting the machine language, executing the code and then storing that code. Therefore, the four steps of machine cycle are as follows:- Fetching the instruction the computer peruses the following project guideline to be executed and any important information into the processor. Decode the instruction- The guideline is decoded and went to the proper processor execution unit. During decoding, the retrieved instruction is translated into a series of computer commands. Execute instruction- The equipment component, now naturally bolstered with a direction and information, does the guideline. Store results- The results that are obtained via information are stored in registers or memory. The time it takes to complete the execution phase (Steps 3 and Steps 4) is called the Execution time or commonly known as E-Time (coated from the text book). Overall Summary of Machine Cycle Each time the CPU executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps. The complete arrangement of steps is known as a machine cycle. A machine cycle could be isolated into two more diminutive cycles. These are instruction cycle and execution cycle. Management Information System (MIS) Definition â€Å"An organized collection of people, procedures, software, databases, and devices that provides routine information to managers and decision makers†. In my own words, Management Information System (MIS) is defined as the study of information system focusing on their use in business and management. The term management information system (MIS) also indicates a specific class of information systems serving middle management. Middle manager needs systems to help monitoring, controlling, decision-making and administrative activities. Therefore, management information system (MIS) will provide the middle managers with reports on the organization’s current performance. This information is used to monitor and control the business and predict the future performance of the company and the employees. Besides that, management information system summarize and report on the company’s basic operation using data supplied by Transaction Process System (TPS). TPS and MIS relation In the system illustrated by this diagram, three TPS supply summarized transaction data to the MIS reporting system at the end of the time period. Managers gain access to the organizational data through the MIS, which provides them with the appropriate reports. In my own words, based on the diagram, the basic transaction data from Transaction Processing System (TPS) are summarized and compressed to the Management Information System (MIS) at the end of the time period. Today the typical Management Information System (MIS) changes transaction level information from stock, preparation and bookkeeping into Management Information System (MIS) documents that are utilized to give middle managers with accurate reports. The information obtained helps middle managers in decision making process. New in Management Information System Management information system is the most exciting topic in business because of the continual change in technology, management use the technology and their impact of business. New business and industrial appear and old ones decline and successful firms are those that learn how to use the new technologies. Besides that, IPhones and BlackBerrys are not just gadgets or entertainment outlets. They represent new emerging computing platforms based on an array of new hardware and software technologies. More and more business registering is moving from Pcs and desktop machines to these mobile devices. Managers are progressively utilizing these gadgets to arrange work, speak with representatives and give data to choice making. We call these developments the emerging mobile platform. All in all, most MIS use simple routines, such as summaries and comparisons as opposed to sophisticated mathematical models or statistical techniques. (Coated from text-book) Near Field Communication (NFC) Definition â€Å"A very short-range wireless connectivity technology designed for cell phones and credit cards. In my own words, Near Field Communication is a short-range high frequency wireless communication technology that empowers the trade of information between gadgets over around a 10 cm separation. Mobile technologies are creating new efficiencies and ways of working throughout the enterprise. In addition to the wireless system, I defined above, wireless frequency identification systems and wireless sensor networks are having a major impact. The most paramount advantage of Near Field Communication is NFC establishes a peer to peer network between 2 or more devices. NFC is an upgrade of the existing â€Å"Proximity Card Standard (RFID)† that joins the interface of a smartcard and an onlooker into a solitary gadget. It permits clients to flawlessly impart content between computerized gadgets, pay bills remotely or even utilize their cellphone as an electronic voyaging ticket on existing contactless foundation officially being used for open transportation. Advantages and disadvantages of NFC Advantages- â€Å"Near Field Communication (NFC)† has a significant advantage over Bluetooth which is the shorter set-up time. As opposed to performing manual arrangements to distinguish Bluetooth gadgets, the association between two NFC gadgets is made without a moments delay under a 1/10 second. Besides that, because of its shorter range, NFC gives a higher level of security than Bluetooth and makes NFC suitable for packed ranges where correlating a signal with its transmitting physical gadget and by amplification, its client may might otherwise prove impossible. Disadvantages- The disadvantage of â€Å"Near Field Communication (NFC) is it is too costly. Because of it, NFC is an unmanageable innovation and smaller organizations may not have any desire to hazard putting resources into NFC on the grounds that it is difficult to measure the extra benefit with NFC. â€Å"It might be costly for businesses to change the way they run their company, for example hiring NFC technicians and additional customer service to handle these tap go transactions (Business Insider). Systems analysis Definition â€Å"The system development phase involving the study of existing and work processes, to identify strengths, weakness and opportunities for improvement†. In my own words, System Analysis is defined as the analysis of a problem that the organization will try to solve with an information system. Explanation of System Analysis The above diagram illustrates the problem-solving process to system building. Therefore, the four steps we would need to take are defining and understanding the problem, develop alternative solutions, choose the best solution and implement the solution. Before a problem can be solved, it first must be properly defined. Parts of the associations must concur that an issue really exists and that it is not kidding. The issue must be researched with the goal that it could be better caught on. In the information systems world, they have for these activities, therefore concluding the first three problem-solving steps where we identify the problem, gather information, devise the alternative solutions and we make decision about the best solution is what we call System Analysis.

Patient Report :: Medical Report

FINDINGS: Severe right-sided chest pain. The __ reported a friction rub. A PM lateral showed questionable mediastinal adenopathy. The patient had no cough or sputum production of ___. CT scan in ___ showed a possibility of a 1x2 cm right paratrachial lymphnode. Several smaller anteromediastinal lymphnodes which were all less than 1 cm were also evaluated. The patient was treated with Indocen with relief of her chest pain. ___ level was 64.5 with a ___ 50. PPD was negative, controls were positive. The CT of the abdomen showed normal liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, adrenals, uterus, a left ovarian cyst, a large gall stone neck of the gall bladder, no adenopathy and her mammogram was within normal limits. The patient reports band-like ache around her right chest with changes in pain with cough and deep breathing. There is no change in position. The patient reports increased shortness of breath with exertion over the past 5 months. No nausea, vomiting, fevers, chills, night sweats, abdominal pains, urinary complaints, kidney stones, diarrhea, ___ melena, headache, visual complaints or rash. PAST MEDICAL HISTORY: Unremarkable. PAST SURGICAL HISTORY: Remarkable for tubal ligation. SHE HAS NO KNOWN DRUG ALLERGIES. MEDICINES ON ADMISSION: Indocin 25-50 mg p.o. q.8 hours and Anaprax 270 mg p.o. b.i.d. The patient drinks alcohol only rarely and smokes regularly. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: Weight of 231 pounds, temperature 98.6, heartrate 60, respiratory rate 24, blood pressure 110/70. HEENT examination was unremarkable. The neck was supple without masses, adenopathy or bruits. The lungs showed small diffuse wheezes, but was otherwise without abnormality. Cardiovascular examination revealed a regular rate and rhythm, normal S1 and S2. Questionably slight change in the S1 with the __ maneuver and a questionable 1/6 systolic ejection murmur heard best at the lower sternal border. The abdomen was obese, showed bowel sounds in all quadrants, soft and nontender. It was difficult to tell if there was organomegaly. Extremities showed no clubbing, cyanosis or edema. Neurologically, the patient was normal. LABORATORY DATA: Show a white count of 8, hemoglobin 14.5, hematocrit 42.5, platelets 326,000, sodium 139, potassium 4.9, chloride 104, CO2 26, glucose 105, creatinine 0.8 and BUN of 17. Please see consolidated lab flow sheet for lab data regarding this patient. HOSPITAL COURSE: Patient was admitted in ____ evaluations as well as consultation from pulmonology service. Pulmonology service recommended the patient undergo bronchoscopy which was performed.

Child Marriage: A Silent Health and Human Rights Issue Essay

Abstract Marriages in which a child under the age of 18 years is involved occur worldwide, but are mainly seen in South Asia, Africa, and Latin America. A human rights violation, child marriage directly impacts girls’ education, health, psychologic well-being, and the health of their offspring. It increases the risk for depression, sexually transmitted infection, cervical cancer, malaria, obstetric fistulas, and maternal mortality. Their offspring are at an increased risk for premature birth and, subsequently, neonatal or infant death. The tradition, driven by poverty, is perpetuated to ensure girls’ financial futures and to reinforce social ties. One of the most effective methods of reducing child marriage and its health consequences is mandating that girls stay in school. Key words: Child marriage, Early marriage, Maternal mortality Child marriage, defined as marriage of a child under 18 years of age, is a silent and yet widespread practice. Today, over 60 million marriages include girls under the age of 18 years: approximately 31 million in South Asia, 14 million in sub-Saharan Africa, and 6.6 million in Latin America and the Caribbean (Figure 1). Each day, 25,000 girls are married and an anticipated 100 million girls will be married in 2012.1 Over 60% of girls are married under the age of 18 in some sub-Saharan countries and Bangladesh, and 40% to 60% of girls undergo child marriage in India (Figure 2). Figure 1 Number of women aged 20–24 who were married or in union before age 18, by region (2006). CEE/CIS, Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Reproduced with permission from United Nations Children’s Fund. Progress †¦ Figure 2 Percentage of women aged 20–24 who were married or in union before age 18 (1987–2006). Reproduced with permission from United Nations Children’s Fund. Progress for Children: A World Fit for Children Statistical Review. New York: †¦ Child marriage has been referred to as early marriage or child brides, but these terms are not optimal. Early marriage does not imply that children are involved, and the term is vague because an early marriage for one society may be considered late by another. The term child brides glorifies the tradition by portraying an image of joy and celebration. Most of these marriages are arranged by parents, and girls rarely meet their future husband before the wedding. The girls know that after the wedding they will move to their husband’s household, become the responsibility of their in-laws, and might not see their own family or friends for some time. Although child marriage includes boys, most children married under the age of 1 8 years are girls. In Mali, the ratio of married girls to boys is 72:1; in Kenya, it is 21:1; in Indonesia, it is 7.5:1; in Brazil, it is 6:1; and even in the United States, the ratio is 8:1.2–4 Go to: Human and Children’s Rights The United Nations and other international agencies have declared that child marriage violates human rights and children’s rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that individuals must enter marriage freely with full consent and must be at full age. In 1979, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women stated that child marriage is illegal. In 1989, the Convention on the Rights of the Child defined children as persons under the age of 18 years. Many countries passed laws changing the legal age of marriage to 18 years, but enforcement of these laws, and of laws requiring marriages to be registered, is weak.5 For example, although the legal age of marriage is 18 years, in Mali 65% of girls are married at a younger age; in Mozambique, it is 57%; and in India, it is 50% (Figure 3). In some parts of Ethiopia, although the legal age of marriage is 15 years, 50% of younger girls are married, and in Mali, 39% of younger girls are married. Furthermore, in some regions, an arranged marriage occurs at birth.6 Figure 3 (A) Percentage of girls (aged 15–19 years) who are currently married. (B) Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years married before age 18. Reproduced with permission from Mathur S, Greene M, Malhotra A. Too Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights, and Health †¦ Go to: Factors Driving Child Marriage Three main forces drive child marriages: poverty, the need to reinforce social ties, and the belief that it offers protection. Child marriage is predominantly seen in areas of poverty. Parents are faced with 2 economic incentives: to ensure their daughter’s financial security and to reduce the economic burden daughters place on the family. Child marriage is first and foremost a product of sheer economic need. Girls are costly to feed, clothe, and educate, and they eventually leave the household. Marriage brings a dowry to the bride’s family. The younger the girl, the higher the dowry, and the sooner the economic burden of raising the girl is lifted. By marrying their daughter to a â€Å"good† family, parents also establish social ties between tribes or clans and improve their social status. Parents also believe that marrying their daughters young protects them from rape, premarital sexual activity, unintended pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections, espe cially human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and AIDS.5 Go to: Health Consequences of Child Marriage Isolation and Depression Once married, girls are taken to their husband’s household, where they assume the role of wife, domestic worker, and, eventually, mother. These new homes can be in a different village or town. Because of the high dowry paid, husbands are usually much older than the girls (and thus have little in common with them) and their new brides are expected to reproduce. Polygamy may also be acceptable in some of these regions. As a result, the girls feel rejected, isolated, and depressed. Some girls realize that survival requires embracing their new environment and proving their fertility. They lose their childhood and miss the opportunity to play, develop friendships, and be educated. Risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection and Cervical Cancer Parents believe that marrying their daughters early protects them from HIV/AIDS. Research has shown the opposite: marriage by the age of 20 years is a risk factor for HIV infection in girls.7 In Kenya, married girls are 50% more likely than unmarried girls to become infected with HIV. In Zambia, the risk is even higher (59%). And in Uganda, the HIV prevalence rate of married girls and single girls between the ages of 15 and 19 years is 89% and 66%, respectively. Their husbands infected these girls. Because the girls try to prove their fertility, they had high-frequency, unprotected intercourse with their husbands. Their older husbands had prior sexual partners or were polygamous. In addition, the girls’ virginal status and physical immaturity increase the risk of HIV transmission secondary to hymenal, vaginal, or cervical lacerations.5 Other sexually transmitted infections, such as herpes simplex virus type 2, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, are also more frequently transmitted and enhance the girls’ vulnerability to HIV. Research demonstrates that child marriage also increases the risk of human papillomavirus transmission and cervical cancer.8 Risks During Pregnancy Pregnant girls in malaria regions were found to be at higher risk for infection. Of the 10.5 million girls and women who become infected with malaria, 50% die. Their highest risk is during their first pregnancy. Pregnancy not only increases the risk of acquiring malaria, but pregnant girls under the age of 19 have a significantly higher malaria density than pregnant women over the age of 19.9 They are also at significant risk of malaria-related complications such as severe anemia, pulmonary edema, and hypoglycemia. Rates of HIV and malaria coinfection are highest in Central African Republic, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, where more than 90% of the population is exposed to malaria and more than 10% are HIV positive. Having both diseases complicates the management and treatment of each. HIV-infected patients have a higher likelihood of getting a more severe form of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. They are less likely to respond as well to antimalaria medication. Malaria increases HIV viral load and increases the mother-to-child HIV transmission rate. Data demonstrate that the combination of these diseases proves deadly to the young pregnant mother.10 Risks During Labor and Delivery Deliveries from child marriages are â€Å"too soon, too close, too many, or too late.†11 Forty-five percent of girls in Mali, 42% in Uganda, and 25% in Ethiopia have given birth by the age of 18. In Western nations, the rates are 1% in Germany, 2% in France, and 10% in the United States (Figure 4). Girls between the ages of 10 and 14 years are 5 to 7 times more likely to die in childbirth; girls between the ages of 15 and 19 years are twice as likely.12 High death rates are secondary to eclampsia, postpartum hemorrhage, sepsis, HIV infection, malaria, and obstructed labor. Girls aged 10 to 15 years have small pelvises and are not ready for childbearing. Their risk for obstetric fistula is 88%.13 Figure 4 Percentage of women, aged 20 to 24 years, married and giving birth by age 18. Reproduced with permission from Mathur S, Greene M, Malhotra A. Too Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights, and Health of Young Married Girls. Washington, DC: International Center †¦ Risks for Infants Mothers under the age of 18 have a 35% to 55% higher risk of delivering a preterm or low-birthweight infant than mothers older than 19 years. The infant mortality rate is 60% higher when the mother is under the age of 18 years. Data demonstrate that even after surviving the first year, children younger than 5 years had a 28% higher mortality rate in the young mothers cohort.14 This morbidity and mortality is due to the young mothers’ poor nutrition, physical and emotional immaturity, lack of access to social and reproductive services, and higher risk for infectious diseases. Go to: Discussion Disheartening as this information may be, there is encouraging news. Data show that in countries where poverty has decreased, such as Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand, the incidence of child marriage has also declined. Media attention raises awareness of the issue and can prompt change. After a highly publicized story in 2008, in which a 10-year-old Yemeni girl fled her husband 2 months after being married and successfully obtained a divorce, Yemen increased the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18 years. More importantly, numerous children, inspired by this case, have sued for divorce.15 Research has long enforced the importance of education for girls and their families. Child marriage truncates girls’ childhood, stops their education, and impacts their health and the health of their infants. Governmental and nongovernmental policies aimed at educating the community, raising awareness, engaging local and religious leaders, involving parents, and empowering girls through education and employment can help stop child marriage. Programs that have shown success are those that give families financial incentives to keep their daughters in school, those that feed children during school hours so parents do not have to bear that responsibility, and those that promise employment once girls have completed their schooling.1 Education not only delays marriage, pregnancy, and childbearing, but school-based sex education can be effective in changing the awareness, attitudes, and practices leading to risky sexual behavior in marriage. Main Points †¢Over 60 million marriages include a girl under the age of 18 years. †¢The main forces that drive child marriage are poverty, the need to reinforce social ties, and the belief that marriage at an early age protects girls from rape, unintended pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infection. †¢Marriage before the age of 18 increases the rate of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in girls. †¢High death rates during pregnancy are secondary to eclampsia, postpartum hemorrhage, sepsis, HIV infections, and obstructed labor. The infant mortality rate is 60% higher when the mother is under the age of 18 years. †¢Education not only delays marriage, pregnancy, and childbearing, but school-based sex education can be effective in changing the awareness, attitudes, and practices leading to risky sexual behavior in marriage. Go to: References 1. Mathur S, Greene M, Malhotra A. Too Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights and Health of Young Married Girls. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women; 2003. pp. 1–15. 2. United Nations, authors. World Marriage Patterns. New York: United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs; 2000. 3. Population Reference Bureau, authors. The World’s Youth 2006 Data Sheet. Washington, DC;: Population Reference Bureau; 2006. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. http://www.prb.org/pdf06/WorldsYouth2006DataSheet.pdf. 4. Alan Guttmacher Institute, authors. Into a New World: Young Women’s Sexual and Reproductive Lives. New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute; 1998. 5. Nour NM. Health consequences of child marriages in Africa. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1644–1649. [PMC free article] [PubMed] 6. Bruce J, Clark S. Including Married Adolescents in Adolescent Reproductive Health and HIV/AIDS Policy. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003. 7. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS, authors. World AIDS Campaign 2004: Women, Girls, HIV and AIDS. Strategic Overview and Background Note. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. http://www.etharc.org/aidscampaign/publications/wac2004.pdf. 8. Zhang ZF, Parkin DM, Yu SZ, et al. Risk factors for cancer of the cervix in a rural Chinese population. Int J Cancer. 1989;43:762–767. [PubMed] 9. Dzeing-Ella A, Nze Obiang PC, Tchoua R, et al. Severe falciparum malaria in Gabonese children: clinical and laboratory features. Malar J. 2005;4:1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] 10. World Health Organization, authors. Malaria and HIV Interactions and Their Implications for Public Health Policy. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. http://www.who.int/malaria/mal aria_HIV/MalariaHIVinteractions_report.pdf. 11. Marriage and the family. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. Interactive Population Center Web site. http://www.unfpa.org/intercenter/cycle/marriage.htm. 12. United Nations, authors. We the Children: End-Decade Review of the Follow-Up to the World Summit for Children. Report of the Secretary-General (A/S-27/3) New York: United Nations; 2001. 13. United Nations Children’s Fund, authors. Fistula in Niamey, Niger. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund; 1998. 14. Adhikari RK. Early marriage and childbearing: risks and consequences. In: Bott S, Jejeebhoy S, Shah, Puri C, editors. Towards Adulthood: Exploring the Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents in South Asia. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003. pp. 62–66. 15. Walt V. A 10-year-old divorcà ©e takes Paris. Time. 2009. Feb 3 [Accessed February 25, 2009]. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1876652,00.html.

Pelycosaurs, Archosaurs, and Therapsids

Like archeologists discovering the ruins of a previously unknown civilization buried deep beneath an ancient city, dinosaur enthusiasts are sometimes astonished to learn that entirely different kinds of reptiles once ruled the earth, tens of millions of years before famous dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus Rex, Velociraptor, and Stegosaurus. For approximately 120 million years—from the Carboniferous to the middle Triassic periods—terrestrial life was dominated by the pelycosaurs, archosaurs, and therapsids (the so-called mammal-like reptiles) that preceded the dinosaurs. Of course, before there could be archosaurs (much less full-blown dinosaurs), nature had to evolve the first true reptile. At the start of the Carboniferous period--the swampy, wet, vegetation-choked era during which the first peat bogs formed—the most common land creatures were prehistoric amphibians, themselves descended (by way of the earliest tetrapods) from the proverbial  prehistoric fish that flipped, flopped, and slithered their way out of oceans and lakes millions of years before. Because of their reliance on water, though, these amphibians couldnt stray far from the rivers, lakes, and oceans that kept them moist, and that provided a convenient place to lay their eggs. Based on the current evidence, the best candidate we know of for the first true reptile is Hylonomus, fossils of which have been found in sediments dating back 315 million years. Hylonomus—the name is Greek for forest dweller—may well have been the first tetrapod (four-footed animal) to lay eggs and have scaly skin, features that would have allowed it to venture farther from the bodies of water to which its amphibian ancestors were tethered. Theres no doubt that Hylonomus evolved from an amphibian species; in fact, scientists believe that the elevated oxygen levels of the Carboniferous period may have helped fuel the development of complex animals in general. The Rise of the Pelycosaurs Now came one of those catastrophic global events that cause some animal populations to prosper, and others to shrivel up and disappear. Toward the start of the  Permian period, about 300 million years ago, the earths climate gradually became hotter and drier. These conditions favored small reptiles like Hylonomus  and were detrimental to the amphibians that had previously dominated the planet. Because they were better at regulating their own body temperature, laid their eggs on land, and didnt need to stay close to bodies of water, the reptiles radiated—that is, evolved and differentiated to occupy various ecological niches. (The amphibians didnt go away—they’re still with us today, in dwindling numbers—but their time in the limelight was over.) One of the most important groups of evolved reptiles was the pelycosaurs (Greek for bowl lizards). These creatures appeared toward the end of the Carboniferous period, and persisted well into the Permian, dominating the continents for about 40 million years. By far the most famous pelycosaur (and one thats often mistaken for a dinosaur) was Dimetrodon, a large reptile with a prominent sail on its back (the main function of which may have been to soak up sunlight and maintain its owners internal temperature). The pelycosaurs made their livings in different ways: for example, Dimetrodon was a carnivore, while its similar-looking cousin Edaphosaurus was a plant-eater (and its entirely possible that one fed on the other). Its impossible to list all the genera of pelycosaurs here; suffice it to say that a lot of different varieties evolved over 40 million years. These reptiles are classified as synapsids, which are characterized by the presence of one hole in the skull behind each eye (technically speaking, all mammals are also synapsids). During the Permian period, synapsids coexisted with anapsids (reptiles lacking those all-important skull holes). Prehistoric anapsids also attained a striking degree of complexity, as exemplified by such large, ungainly creatures as Scutosaurus. (The only anapsid reptiles alive today are the Testudines—turtles, tortoises, and terrapins.) Meet the Therapsids—The Mammal-Like Reptiles The timing and sequence cant be pinned down precisely, but paleontologists believe that sometime during the early  Permian  period, a branch of pelycosaurs evolved into reptiles called therapsids (otherwise known as mammal-like reptiles). Therapsids were characterized by their more powerful jaws bearing sharper (and better differentiated) teeth, as well as their upright stances (that is, their legs were situated vertically beneath their bodies, compared to the sprawling, lizard-like posture of earlier synapsids). Once again, it took a catastrophic global event to separate the boys from the men (or, in this case, the pelycosaurs from the therapsids). By the end of the Permian period,  250 million years ago, over two-thirds of all land-dwelling animals went extinct, possibly because of a meteorite impact (of the same type that killed the dinosaurs 185 million years later). Among the survivors were various species of therapsids, which were free to radiate into the depopulated landscape of the early  Triassic  period. A good example is  Lystrosaurus, which evolutionary writer Richard Dawkins has called the Noah of the Permian/Triassic boundary: fossils of this 200-pound therapsid have been found all over the world. Here’s where things get weird. During the Permian period, the cynodonts (dog-toothed reptiles) that descended from the earliest therapsids developed some distinctly mammalian characteristics. Theres solid evidence that reptiles like  Cynognathus  and  Thrinaxodon  had fur, and they may also have had  warm-blooded metabolisms  and black, wet, dog-like noses. Cynognathus (Greek for dog jaw) may even have given birth to live young, which by almost any measure would make it much closer to a mammal than to a reptile! Sadly, the therapsids were doomed by the end of the Triassic period, muscled out of the scene by the archosaurs (of which more below), and then by the archosaurs immediate descendants, the  earliest dinosaurs. However, not all therapsids went extinct: a few small genera survived for tens of millions of years, scurrying unnoticed under the feet of lumbering dinosaurs and evolving into the first  prehistoric mammals  (of which the immediate predecessor may have been the small, quivering therapsid Tritylodon.) Enter the Archosaurs Another family of prehistoric reptile, called the  archosaurs, coexisted with the therapsids (as well as the other land reptiles that survived the Permian/Triassic extinction). These early diapsids—so-called because of the two, rather than one, holes in their skulls behind each eye socket—managed to out-compete the therapsids, for reasons that are still obscure. We do know that the teeth of archosaurs were more firmly set in their jaw sockets, which would have been an evolutionary advantage, and its possible that they were quicker to evolve upright, bipedal postures (Euparkeria, for example, may have been one of the first archosaurs capable of rearing up on its hind legs.) Toward the end of the Triassic period, the first archosaurs split off into the first primitive dinosaurs: small, quick, bipedal carnivores like  Eoraptor,  Herrerasaurus,  and  Staurikosaurus. The identity of the immediate progenitor of the dinosaurs is still a matter of debate, but one likely candidate is  Lagosuchus  (Greek for rabbit crocodile), a tiny, bipedal archosaur that possessed a number of distinctly dinosaur-like characteristics, and that sometimes goes by the name  Marasuchus. (Recently, paleontologists identified what may well be the earliest dinosaur descended from archosaurs, the 243-million-year-old  Nyasasaurus.) It would, however, be a very dinosaur-centric way of looking at things to write archosaurs out of the picture as soon as they evolved into the first theropods. The fact is that archosaurs went on to spawn two other mighty races of animals: the  prehistoric crocodiles  and the  pterosaurs, or flying reptiles. In fact, by all rights, we should be giving crocodiles precedence over dinosaurs, since these fierce reptiles are still with us today, whereas  Tyrannosaurus Rex,  Brachiosaurus,  and all the rest arent!